The Sri Lankan Army of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.

History

B.C. Period

Shortly before the arrival of this mission in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Devanampiya Tissa, its ruler, had sent envoys bearing presents to the Indian Emperor. Among the presents sent in return by Asoka to Devanapiya Tissa were requisites for a royal consecration. It appears that the purpose of Tissa's mission to Asoka was to secure the support of the Indian potentate for his assumption of legal status. It is definitely stated that before the time of Tissa, there were no consecrated rulers in the Island. This is also indicated by the title of Gamini, which means "leader of the community", borne by the early kings of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Tissa was anointed with the requisites sent by Asoka. The epithet of Devanampiya, meaning "Friend of Gods" is attached to the name of Tissa in chronicles of Sri Lanka. It is with this epithet that Asoka refers to himself and his predecessors in his own inscriptions; it was borne by his grandson who succeeded him. This title, which went out of vogue among Indian royalty after the downfall of the Mauryas, continued to be borne by Sinhalese kings for about two centuries after Devanampiya Tissa. Asoka also sent a religious message to Tissa, stating that he had become an Upasaka (lay devotee) by taking refuge in Buddha, His doctrine and his Order.

He exhorted Tissa to do likewise. Thus, the ground had already been prepared for the success of Mahindas mission when that Teacher arrived at Mihintale for the on a full moon Poya Day in the month of Poson (May- June), and was met by Tissa. The king and his courtiers, as well as the people of the Island in general, accepted the teachings of the Buddha preached by Mahinda and his companions. Monasteries were established at Anuradhapura and Mihintale for the accommodation of Mahinda and his companions, as well as those who joined the Order from Sri Lanka. For the worship of the lay followers, a stupa named Thuparama was built at the Anuradhapura enshrining a bodily relic of Buddha. A branch of the Bodhi Tree under which Buddha realized the Truth was brought to Sri Lanka, and planted in the royal park to the south of the city. This sacred object was brought from India by the Nun Sangamiththa, sister of Mahinda, who also initiated women into Sangha, and thus established the Order of Nuns. The Stupa and the Bodhi Tree symbolized the Buddha, and it was by worshipping them that the early Buddhists expressed their devotion to their master.

Such is the account that we can gather from literary sources about the settlement of Sinhalese in this Island and the establishment of Buddhism as their faith. This is corroborated in its essentials by the archeological evidence.

Ancient Sinhala Kingodoms & Battles

The few megalithic monuments and urn-burials discovered in Sri Lanka are obviously an overflow from South India. The archeological evidence is supported by literary sources. The Dravidian peoples influenced the course of the Islands history about the same time they gained mastery over the South Indian kingdoms, or shortly afterwards. Within three or four decades from the death of Devanampiya Tissa, Dravidian invaders made an attempt to impose their dominion over Sri Lanka, and almost succeeded. The first Dravidian attack on Sri Lanka recorded in the chronicles is said to have been led by Sena and Guththika, described as merchants mariners who dealt in horses. They appear therefore to have come from the Sindhu region, which was noted in ancient days for its fine breed of horses. Sena and Guththika are said to have ruled Anuradhapura for twenty two years.

Ten years after Sena and Guththika were ousted by a Sinhalese prince, another Dravidian leader, by name Elara, invaded the Island and captured power at Anuradhapura. Elara, who is said to have come from the Cola (Chola) country (Coromandel Coast), had a reputation for impartial justice. He was vanquished in battle by Dutthagamini (161-131BC) a scion of the Sinhalese royal house ruling over the Ruhuna, as the South-Eastern part of the Island was known. The Dravidians gained mastery over the Anuradhapura kingdom once again about 103BC, but were vanquished after twelve years by Wattagamini. In these conflicts between the Sinhalese and Dravidians for the domination of the Island, champions on both sides are said to have performed superhuman feats of valour, and the period may be referred to as the heroic age of the Islands history.

For five hundred years after the Tamil invaders were vanquished by Wattagamini in or about 89BC the Sinhalese kingdom, according to the accounts given in Pali chronicles, was not harassed by external enemies, and their rulers could therefore devote their time and energies to agricultural development, building activities and other peaceful pursuits. The first dynasty of Sinhalese kings, which may be referred to as the Gramaneya, and of which such outstanding monarchs like Devanapiya Tissa, Dutthagamini, Wattagamini, and Bhatika Abhaya, were scions, became effete by about the middle of the first century, and a new dynasty named the Lambakanna was founded by Vasabha in 65 AD.

The Island was ruled by the Lambakannas until 432 AD. The reasons which lead to the downfall of the first dynasty are not known. The origin of the Lambakanna dynasty and the career of its founder are also shrouded in obscurity, but the Sinhalese equivalent of the Pali 'Lambakanna' means 'scribe'. We may therefore conclude that the family came into prominence by holding high administrative posts of the state, and from that vantage position, managed to secure sovereign power afterwards. The last members of the first Dynasty had allowed the scepter to pass from their hand by their incompetence.

Gajabahu is the only king of ancient Ceylon who has found a place in early Tamil literature, and it is not impossible that undertook an expedition to South India. At any rate, his military prowess is attested by his title of Galabahu (whose arm is of the strength of an elephant), by which he is better known than by his personal name of Gamini Abhaya. Some of the rulers of the Lambakanna dynasty bore names such as Mahasena and Buddhadasa which were not known to the scions of the earlier lines; but the emergence of a new dynasty does not appear to have been marked by any violent change in the political, economic and administrative organisation, or in religion and art, apart from natural developments.

The title Gamini borne by the kings of the first dynasty, is prefixed to the name of only one ruler of the Lambakanna dynasty, namely Gajabahu Gamini Abhaya. There is no instance of the use of the title Devanampiya by any of the rulers of this dynasty, but towards the latter part of history, the title Mahaparumaka, meaning 'great lord', is prefixed to the names of kings who also used the epithet Buddhadasa 'servant of Buddha', to express their devotion to the Buddhist faith. The title parumaka used by members of the nobility in the earlier period went out of vogue about the middle of the first century.

In addition to its founder and his grandson Gajabahu, already referred to, the Lambakanna dynasty produced a number of outstanding rulers.Voharika Tissa bore an epithet which means 'jurist'. Sirisanghabodhi followed the career of a Bodhisattva, and in order to avoid civil war, is said to have given to a peasant his own head, on which a price had been set by a rival Gothabhaya. Mahasena (276-303), the son of Gothabhaya, was a great a builder and contributed to the economic prosperity of the land by the construction of irrigation woks. He, however, encouraged innovation in religion and earned the opprobrium of the orthodox chronicles. Sirimeghavanna (303-331) had diplomatic relations with Samudragupta, the great Indian Emperor, and with the latter's permission established a monastery at Bodh-Gaya. Buddhadasa (340-368), a physician himself, established an efficient health service in his kingdom.

From the indefinite beginnings of the history of the Sinhalese in Sri Lanka up to the end of the reign of Mahanama, may be referred to as the early Anurdhapura period. the elements of culture, material as well as spiritual, which were transplanted in the Island from the neighboring continent, developed during this period according to a distinctive pattern which, while preserving the characteristics common to all manifestation of the Indian culture, has impressed on it the individuality of this Island and its people. while the various elements of the Island's culture underwent changes, there has been a unity and a continuity which makes it easy to recognise the connection of later developments with the cultural pattern which was its precursor. The Sinhalese culture of the early period attained a maturity in about the second century, as reflected in art and writing, and thus continued as the norm till the end of this period, despite a falling off from the norm in certain directions.

Pre Colonial Era

In the eighth century Anuradhapura Kingdom was transferred Polonnaruwa, which was soon abandoned due to invasions from South India. The seat of government was thence shifted to various places, until in the fifteenth century it was finally fixed at Kandy, now the second city of the island and famous for the Buddhist temple known as the "Dalada Maligawa", the repository of the tooth-relic of Buddha. During this period of trouble the trade of the country fell principally into the hands of the Arabs. Many of these formidable warriors settled in the maritime parts of the island their trading instincts are inherited by their descendants, generally known as "Moors"; with accretions from their co-religionists of the neighbouring continent they form the Mohammedan community of Ceylon.

Colonial Era

The Portuguese conquered the coastal areas in the early 16th cent. and introduced the Roman Catholic religion. By the mid-17th cent. the Dutch had taken over the Portuguese possessions and the rich spice trade. In 1795 the Dutch possessions were occupied by the British, who made the island a crown colony in 1798. In 1815 the island was brought under one rule for the first time when the central area, previously under the rule of Kandy, was conquered. Under the British, tea, coffee, and rubber plantations were developed, and schools, including a university, were opened. A movement for independence arose during World War I. The constitution of 1931 granted universal adult suffrage to the inhabitants; but demands for independence continued, and in 1946 a more liberal constitution was enacted.

The Portuguese Rule

It was in the beginning of the sixteenth century that modern Europe first came in contact with Ceylon. In 1505 a Portuguese fleet, while operating in the Indian seas against Arab traders, touched accidentally at Galle on the southern coast; in 1517 the Portuguese re-appeared and with the consent of the Sinhalese king established a factory at Colombo. The Portuguese having begun as traders soon made themselves political masters of the entire sea-board, forts were established, and European civilization was introduced.

The Dutch Rule

In 1658 the Portuguese were driven out by their rivals the Dutch, who then added Ceylon to their East Indian possessions. The descendants of the Dutch, being the product of intermarriage with the Portuguese and the natives, constitute the "Burgher" community of Ceylon. The English first cast their eyes upon Ceylon in 1782 during the war with Holland, when a British force reduced and took possession of Trincomalee, which was, however, soon retaken by the French and restored to the Dutch. But in 1795 an appeal came to the British from the Sinhalese king was then maintaining all unequal contest against Dutch aggression, and in 1796 the Dutch were

British Colonialism

The British Rule

The English had thus succeeded the Portuguese and the Dutch in the possession of the maritime districts of the island, but the central provinces were still under the feeble rule of the Sinhalese king who reigned at Kandy. The king was out of favour with his subjects on account of his cruelty and misgovernment, and at the request of the disaffected chiefs a British force was dispatched to Kandy in 1815. King Sri Wickrama Sinha was taken prisoner and the Kandyan provinces vere added to the British Crown which has since held the sovereignty of the whole of Ceylon. What may be called the indigenous population of Ceylon comprises various races; to which must be added the European residents either in the employ of the Government or engaged in commerce or industries, and the Indian immigrants, some of whom carry on a petty trade, but who in their larger number constitute the labour-supply of the island. The chief native races are: (1) the Sinhalese, consisting of the low-country Sinhalese and the up-country or Kandyan Sinhalese; (2) the Tamils, inhabiting chiefly the Northern and Eastern Provinces; 3) the Moors; (4) the Burghers. According to the decennial census of 1901 the total population of Ceylon was 3,565,954 distributed according to nationality as follows: Sinbalese, 2,330,807; Tamils, 951,740; Moors, 228,034; Burghers, 23,482; Europeans, 6,300; others, 25,591. The last includes the Veddas of Ceylon (3971) who are gradually disappearing.

Early British Military Establishment

Initially the British stationed their own troops for defence of the island nation, which included naval vessels, artillery troops and infantry. They used the natural port of Trincomalee as their headquarters. In 1796, Swiss and Malay mercenaries in the Dutch service transferred to the British East India Company. The Swiss De Meuron's Regiment was disbanded in Canada in 1822. The Malays initially formed a Malay Corps, however this changed in 1802 to the 1st Ceylon Regiment under a British Commanding Officer. In the same year they also raised a Sinhalese unit, called the 2nd Ceylon Regiment, also known as the Sepoy Corps. In 1803 a 3rd Ceylon Regiment was raised with Mollucans and recruits from Penang. All these regiments fought in the Kandyan wars of 1803. One of their number, William O'Dean, defected to the King of Kandy and was deported to by the British to Australia in 1816. Throughtout the following years more Sinhalese and Malays were recruited to these regiments and in 1814 a 4th regiment was raised comprising African troops. In 1817 the name of the regiment was changed to the Ceylon Rifle Regiment. After the Matale Rebellion led by Puran Appu in 1848, the recruitment of Sinhalese was stopped. The Ceylon Rifle Regiment marked the first phase of the employment of non-British personnel in Ceylon for service in the British Military.

Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers

The second phase in the employment of non-British personnel commenced in 1861 after the enactment of an ordinance designed to authorise the creation of Volunteer Corps in the Colony. It was designated the Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers (CLIV). This move compensated for the disbandment of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment in 1874. The Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers was originally administered as a single unit. However over the years various sections of the volunteers grew large enough to become independent from their parent unit. The different units that emerged from the Volunteer Force were namely the,

• Ceylon Artillery Volunteers
• Ceylon Mounted Infantry (CMI)
• Ceylon Volunteer Medical Corps
• Cadet Battalion Ceylon Light Infantry
• Ceylon Engineers
• Ceylon Supply & Transport Corps
• Ceylon Planters Rifle Corps (CPRC).

Ceylon Defence Force

In 1910 the name was formerly changed to the Ceylon Defence Force (CDF). It continued to grow as throughout the early period of 20th Century. The CDF saw active service when a contingent of CMI in 1900, and a contingent of CPRC in 1902, took part in the Second Boer War in South Africa. Their valuable services were recognised by presentation, in 1902 of a colour to the CMI, and a presentation in 1904, of a Banner to the CPRC. In 1922, the CDF was honoured by the presentation of the King's and Regimental colours to the Ceylon Light Infantry.

During the First World War, many volunteers from the Defence Force found their way to England and joined the British Army, and many of them died. One of them, mentioned by Arthur Conan Doyle was Pte Jacotine of the CLI, who was the last man left alive in his unit at the Battle of Lys, and who continued to fight for 20 minutes before he was killed.

In 1939, the CDF was mobilised and an enormous expansion took place which required raising of new units such as the Post and Telegraph Signals, the Ceylon Railway Engineer Corps, the Ceylon Electrical and Mechanical Engineer Corps, the Auxiliary Territorial Service, the Ceylon Corps of Military Police, and the Ceylon Signals Corps and the Colombo Town Guard Unit, which had been disbanded earlier, was once again formed to meet military requirements. During the Second World War Britain assumed direct control over the Armed Forces of Ceylon.

Post Independence

When WWII ended, the task of returning the enormously swollen wartime CDF to its normal proportions got under way. By 1948 independence was declared and in 1949, the Army Act was passed by Parliament raising the Ceylon Army, composed of Regular and Volunteer Forces. The initial requirement was to raise an artillery regiment, an engineer squadron, an infantry battalion, a medical unit, and a service corps company. The Army Act was enacted in parliament on the 10th of October 1949 which is recognized as the day, the Ceylon Army was raised. The Army was to be comprised of a Regular and a Volunteer force and the initial requirement was to raise the following units in the Regular and Volunteer Forces.

There were no formations and all units were directly functioning under Army Headquarters. Temporary field headquarters were formed at the time of a requirement as it was done during the 1958 communal riots. The first field formation was raised in 1963, to prevent illicit immigration from South India. This headquarters was known as Task Force Anti Illicit Immigration (TAFII), which was disbanded in 1981. In May 1972, when Ceylon became the Republic of Sri Lanka, all Army units were renamed accordingly

Subsequently, various formations were raised from time to time to suit various security requirements in the country. The Army is now organised into divisions and brigades. Each division is responsible for a particular area and it is commanded by a General Officer Commanding in the rank of Major General. Except for the division based in Panagoda, all other divisions are responsible for the security in the Northern and Eastern provinces. The area assigned to a particular division is further divided into areas where the responsibility of those areas are assigned to brigades. Each brigade is commanded by an officer in the rank of Brigadier and has a number of Infantry battalions, support arms (Artillery, Engineers and Signals), and Services (Service Corps, Engineering Services, Ordnance Corps, Electrical and Mechanical Engineers), under its command. In peace areas instead of brigade there are Area and Sub-Area Headquarters. Armour, Artillery, Engineers and Signals Units are grouped under Brigade Headquarters of their own arm; Armoured Brigade, Artillery Brigade and so on.

1980-Present

In the 1980s the Liberation Tigersof Tamil Eelam initiated a full-scale guerrilla war against the army in the north and east; at the same time, radical Sinhalese students assassinated government officials whom they believed were too soft on the Tamils. In response to a request from Jayawardene's government, India sent (1987) 42,000 troops to NE Sri Lanka. The Indian troops fought an inconclusive war with the Tigers and were asked to withdraw by Jayawardene's successor, Ramasinghe Premadasa, who was elected in 1988.

The Indian troops withdrew in late 1989, and fighting resumed in 1990. In 1993, Premadasa was assassinated in a suicide bombing; he was succeeded as president by prime minister and UNP leader Dingiri Banda Wijetunga. A year later, the opposition People's Alliance party (PA) came to power, and Chandrika Kumaratunga, the daughter of Sirimavo Bandaranaike, became prime minister and then president. Her government negotiated a cease-fire with the Tamil Tigers, but it collapsed after three months as violence resumed. In late 1995 the government, in a large-scale offensive, captured the Tamil stronghold of Jaffna; heavy casualties were reported there, while terrorist bombs caused civilian deaths in Colombo. The war continued throughout the 1990s, as government troops attacked rebel bases and terrorists carried out political assassinations (including those of several moderate Tamil politicians) and suicide bombings. By end of the century, more than 60,000 people had been killed in the ethnic conflict.

President Kumaratunga was injured when a suicide bomber detonated explosives at an election rally in Dec., 1999; a few days later, she narrowly won reelection. Subsequent attempts by Kumaratunga to negotiate a new constitution that would grant Tamils some autonomy proved unsuccessful, and fighting continued. In Oct., 2000, the PA remained the largest party after parliamentary elections, but it was six seats shy of an absolute majority, leading it form a coalition with a Muslim party. When that party withdrew, Kumaratunga suspended parliament (July–Sept., 2001) until she could form a coalition with the leftist, nationalist People's Liberation Front (JVP). Defections by members of her own party, however, ultimately forced her to dissolve parliament and call for new elections in December.

Following an opposition victory at the polls, the UNP's Ranil Wickremasinghe became prime minister, creating a politically divided government. He pledged to work with the president, and agreed to a truce and mediated negotiations with the Tamil guerrillas. The truce led to a formal cease-fire, brokered by Norway and signed in Feb., 2002, and off-and-on peace talks began the following September.

The crisis continued into 2004, and in January Kumaratunga claimed she was entitled to an additional year in office because of a secret swearing-in ceremony a year after she was elected to her second term. (Sri Lanka's supreme court ruled against her claim to an additional year in 2005.) The following month the president called early elections, which were held in April. Her PA-led coalition won a plurality of the parliamentary seats, and she appointed Mahinda Rajapaksa prime minister.

Meanwhile, a split developed in the Tamil guerrillas in March, when the eastern force broke away, but the following month the main northern force reasserted control in the east. The rebels accused the government of supporting the renegade faction and refused to restart the peace talks. Sri Lanka's coastal areas, especially in the south and east, were devastated by the Dec., 2004, Indian Ocean tsunami that was caused by an earthquake off NW Sumatra. More than 38,000 people died, and more than 800,000 displaced. Only Sumatra itself suffered greater loss of life.

An agreement between the government and the rebels to share the distribution of disaster aid seriously weakened the governing coalition when the JVP quit the government in protest. The JVP challenged the agreement in court, and although it was upheld in principle, the court's objection to aspects of it led to suspension (July, 2005) of its implementation. At the same time, there escalating Tamil attacks, and in August the Sri Lankan foreign minister was assassinated by the Tigers, the international community reacted angirly to this and banned the Tigers from operating in E.U States (U.S, U.K, India, & Australia remains hard on the Tigers as these Nations too have banned the Tigers as a ruthless terrorist organization). The government invoked emergency rule, and subsequently called for a renegotiation of the cease-fire agreement with the Tamil rebels to establish stronger sanctions for cease-fire violations. With no respect for the cease fire or the democratic process of Sri Lanka, the Tigers to this date carry out attacks on political delegates, innocent civilians, and on the Sri Lankan military forces, only to deny such incidents with the help of it's propaganda machine, when confronted by the International community.

Organisation

The staff in the Army is assigned to support the field troops. Army Headquarters is divided into many branches, namely the General Staff (GS) branch responsible for coordination of operations and training and Adjutant General's (AGs) branch responsible for personal administration, welfare, medical services and rehabilitation. The Quarter Master General's (QMGs) branch is responsible for feeding, transport, movement and construction and maintenance. Master General of Ordnance (MGOs) branch is responsible for procurement and maintenance of vehicles and special equipment. Each branch is headed by an officer in the rank of Major General who is directly responsible to the Commander of the Army for the smooth functioning of the Branch. The Military Secretary's Branch headed by a senior Brigadier, is responsible for handling all matters pertaining to officers such as promotions, postings and discipline. Under each Branch, there are several Directorates, each headed by a Brigadier.

The Headqurters of field formations each has its own staff. For instance a divisional headquarters is divided into a GS branch as an AQ branch, each headed by a Colonel and is responsible for operations & training and administration & logistics respectively. Similarly, a Brigade Major and Major AQ is responsible for operations and administration in a brigade.

Sri Lankan Army is presently 150, 000 strong (+ 10,000 reserves)

Facing sore defeat LTTE has been crippled to less than 5,000 cadres, mainly due to the past forceful Sri Lankan military operations. The East wing of the LTTE was totally dismantled when it's leader Major Karuna left over increasing corruption and abuses committed with in the organization in 2004.

Personnel

The discipline and capability of the Sri Lankan Army have put them on the United Nations list as one of the major peace keeping forces to Haiti. Further the military had helped out with re-construction efforts in the North and East, as well as worked around clock in the aftermath of the devastating tsunami that hit the country on December 26th 2004. The future for the military remains very vivid due to the end of rebel threat. The present Sri Lankan army has in deed positioned it self as one of the most recognizable forces in the world to be reckoned with.

Equipment

In recent years Sri Lanka has become increasingly reliant on China for weapons. European nations and the United States are regular suppliers of weapons to Sri Lanka. The weapons range from automatic guns, naval boats, ships, and fighter jets. Presently Sri Lanka maintains a vast variety of latest weapons from Britain, Israel and other former suppliers.

Infantry weapons

• Type 56 Assault Rifle
• H&K MP5 Submachine Gun
• Uzi Submachine Gun

Armoured vehicles

• Daimler Ferret
• Alvis Saladin
• Buffel
• Unicorn
• BMP-1
• T-55
• BTR-80

External links