For other uses, see Pharaoh (disambiguation)

Pharaoh (Arabic فرعون Firʻawn) (Hebrew פַּרְעֹה Parʻō); is a title used to refer to the kings (of godly status) in ancient Egypt.

Etymology

The term derives ultimately from the Egyptian words Pr-Aa meaning "Great House." Originally a term for the royal palace, this word came into vogue to refer to the king. The earliest certain instance of the term "pharaoh" is in a letter addressed to Thutmose III in the mid-Eighteenth Dynasty (1539-1292 BC). By the Twenty-Second Dynasty (c. 945-c. 720 BC) this usage had been extended and was now used occasionally just as hm.f "His Majesty" was used in earlier periods. It was not the official title, but was used in letters to the monarch. It is frequently used by modern historians due to its use in the Bible, especially the Book of Exodus, and in the ancient (Jewish or Christian) Greek and Roman

Open problems

There are many questions surrounding the ancient Egyptian kings/pharaohs. Below are just a few:

• It is unknown who was the first king of Egypt. It may have been Menes or Narmer. Narmer is attested archaeologically, but Menes is not; it is possible that Menes is mythological, or that Menes and Narmer are the same person. If Menes existed as a separate person from Narmer, it is unknown which of them came first.

• Scholars have wondered whether Ramesses III defended Egypt against the Sea People because they were invading, or whether they were people fleeing to Egypt in the middle of a war. It is unclear whether Ramesses III or Amenemhat I were assassinated.

• The exact circumstances surrounding the disappearance of Akhenaten's wife, Nefertiti, are unknown. The body of Akhenaten himself has not been found, and it is unknown whether Akhenaten was killed or exiled. The exact nature of what Akhenaten believed is also still debated by scholars. The parentage of the next pharaoh, Tutankhamun, is uncertain, and the date and nature of his death is unknown.

• What happened to Hatshepsut is unknown and Hatshepsut's relationship with Senenmut is debated.

• While it is clear Cleopatra was Greek and not Egyptian, her father having been Ptolemy XII Auletes, it is unclear who her mother was, although probably Ptolemy's half sister Cleopatra Selene.

• Little is known about the reign of Pharaoh Smendes
  
  
  
  I, and it is possible that Egypt split during his governance.

• It is unclear whether Khababash of the Thirtieth Dynasty was a true pharaoh, and his origins are also a mystery.

• It is unknown whether Necho II really sent out an expedition, which sailed from the Red Sea around Africa back to the mouth of the Nile.

Regalia and titles

The king of Egypt wore a double crown, created from the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Crown of Upper Egypt. It was adorned by a uraeus, which was doubled under the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Egyptologist Bob Brier has noted that despite its widespread depiction in royal portraits, no actual ancient Egyptian crown has ever been discovered. Tutankhamun's tomb, discovered largely intact, did contain such regal items as his crook and flail, but did not contain a crown. Crowns were assumed to have magical properties, and Brier's speculation is there were items a dead pharaoh could not take with him and, therefore, had to be passed along to his living successor.

The official titulary of the king by the New Kingdom consisted of five names; for some rulers, we know only one or two of them.

See also

• List of Pharaohs
• Egyptian chronology - Conventional Egyptian chronology
• History of Egypt
• Monarch
• Fivefold Titulary

Bibliography

• Sir Alan Gardiner Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition, Revised. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Excursus A, pp. 71-76.
• Brier, Bob. PhD. History of Ancient Egypt (Audio). The First Nation in History. The Learning Company. 2001.

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