Literature in Hindi, the language spoken by the majority of people in India. Hindi has its roots in the classical Sanskrit language. Hindi literature may be traced back to medieval times when poets composed in dialects such as Brajbhasha and Avadhi. Prose came much later, and the first work of prose in Hindi is generally agreed upon as being the fantasy novel Chandrakanta written by Devaki Nandan Khatri.

The Hindi poetry is divided into four prominent stages: Bhakti (Devotional - Kabir, Raskhan etc.), Shringar (Beauty - Keshav, Bihari), Veer-Gatha (Extolling Brave Warriors) and Adhunik (Modern).

History

Adi kaal (before 1400 CE)

In ancient period of Hindi or Adi Kaal (before 1400 CE), Hindi literature was developed in the states of Kannauj, Delhi and Ajmer. Delhi was ruled by Prithviraj Chauhan and his court poet was Chand Bardai. His eulogy on Prithiviraj Chauhan called the Prithviraj Raso was considered one of the first works in the History of Hindi Literature. Kannauj's last Rathore ruler was Jayachand, who gave more patronage to Sanskrit (which was no longer the common man's language). His court poet was Harsha (whose major poetic work was Naishdhiya Charitra). Mahoba's royal poet Jagnayak (or Jagnik) and Ajmer's Nalha were other literary figures in this period. However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat, most literary works belonging to this period were destroyed in Muhammad Ghori's campaign. Very few scriptures, manuscripts from this period are available and their genuineness is also doubted.

Some Siddha and Nathpanthi poets' works belonging to this period are also found, but their genuineness is again, doubted. Siddhas belonged to Vajrayana, a later Buddhist cult. Many argue that the language of Siddha poetry is not earlier Hindi, but Magadhi Prakrit. Nathpanthis were yogis who practised Hatha yoga. Some Jain and Rasau (heroic poets) poetry works are also available from this period.

In Deccan region in South India, Dakkhini or Hindavi was used. It flourished under the Delhi Sultanate and later under the Nizams of Hyderabad. It was written in the Persian script. Nevertheless, the Hindavi literature can be considered as proto-Hindi literature. Many Deccani experts like Sheikh Ashraf, Mulla Vajahi used the word Hindavi to describe this dialect. Others like Roustami, Nishati etc preferred to call it Deccani. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first Deccani author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote three prose works - Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His grandson Abdulla Hussaini wrote Nishatul Ishq. The first Deccani poet was Nizami.

In later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint-poets like Ramanand and Gorakhnath became famous. Earliest form of Hindi can also be seen in some of Vidyapati's Maithili works.

Bhakti Kaal

The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and composition of long, epic poems. Avadhi and Braj were the dialects in which litearture was developed. The main works in Avadhi are Malik Muhammad Jayasi's Padmavat and Tulsidas's Ramcharitmanas. The major works in Braj dialect are Tulsidas's Vinay Patrika and Surdas's Sur Sagar.Sadhukaddi was also a language commony used, especially by Kabir Das in his poetry and dohas. The Bhakti perdiod also marked great theoretical development in poetry forms cheifly from a mixture of older forms of poetry in Sanskrit School and the Persian School. These included Verse Patters like Doha, Sortha, Chaupaya etc. This was also the age when Poetry was characterized under the various Rasas. Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the VirGatha Kaal which was characterized by an overdose of Poetry in the Vir Rasa (Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned the whole gamut of rasas from Shringara rasa, Vatsalya Rasa, Vir Rasa, Prema Rasa etc.Bhakti poetry had two schools - the Nirguna school (the believers of a formeless God or an abstract name) and the Saguna school (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations). Kabir and Guru Nanak belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by the Great Adviata Philosophy of Adi Sankaracharya. They believed in the concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Bramh or the Shapeless Formless One. The Saguna school was represented by mainly Vaishnava poets like Surdas, Tulsidas and others and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chielfy Vishnava in orientation as in seen in the main compositons like Raamcharitmanas, Sur Saravali, Sur Sagar extoling Lord Rama and

Ritikavya Kaal

In Ritikavya or Ritismagra Kavya period, the erotic element became pre-dominant in the Hindi literature. This era is called Riti (meaning Procedure) because this was the age when poetry forms and theory developed to the fullest, as in the theoretical aspects and procedures of poetry writing as an Art Form reached to very high levels. But this over emphasis on poetry theory greatly reduced the Emotive Aspects of Poetry which was the chief aspect of the Bhakti movement and poetry content gradually started degenerating. The Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug split into two schools ] somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras. The Reeti Era saw most of its work under the KrishnaBhakti banner, but the works had greatly degenerated in philosophical content from the pure forms of total Devotion to the Dualistic Supreme Being, more towards the erotic description of Shringaric aspects of Krishna's life, his Leela, his pranks with the Gopis in Braj, the description of the carnal/physical aspects of the beauty of Radha (Krishna's Consort). The poetry of Bihari, Ghananand Das fit this bill.The most well known book from this age is Bihari Satsai by Bihari which is a collection of Dohas about Bhakti (devotion), Neeti (Moral policies) and Shringaar (love).

Modern Period (after 1800)

Due to Maratha, British and Afghan influences, the Hindi of Central India was affected. Avadhi and Braj had lost their prestige as the language of the learned. Khari dialect became the chief literary language. Some mediocre literature was produced during early 18th century. Some examples are Chand Chhand Varnan Ki Mahima by Gangabhatt, Yogavashishtha by Ramprasad Niranjani, Gora-Badal ki katha by Jatmal, Mandovar ka varnan by Anonymous, a translation of Ravishenacharya's Jain Padmapuran by Daulatram (dated 1824).

In 1857, the British East India Company established Fort William College at Calcutta. The College President John Gill Christ hired professors to write books in Hindi and Urdu. Some of these books were Premsagarby Lalloolal, Naasiketopaakhyan by Sadal Mishra, Sukhsagar by Sadasukhlal of Delhi and Rani Ketaki ki kahani by Munshi Inshallah Khan.

By this time, Hindustani had become the general public's language. To distingush themselves from the general masses, the learned Muslims used to write in Urdu (infested with Persian and Arabic vocabulary), while Khadiboli became prominent among educated Hindus. Khadiboli with heavily Sanskritized vocabulary or Sahityik Hindi (Literary Hindi) was popularized by the writings of Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra and others. Bhartendu Harishchandra preferred Braj dialect for poetry, but for prose, he deliberately used Khadiboli. Other important writers of this period are Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Maithili Sharan Gupt, R N Tripathi and Gopala Sharan Sinha. The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Khadiboli popular among the educated people. ChandraKanta written by Devaki Nandan Khatri and also its sequel ChandraKanta Santati was considered the first authentic work of prose in the Adhunik kaal (modern period). A story of magical characters, kings and kingdoms, it reminds one of The Lord of the Rings series and was successfully manifested into an aponymous TV Serial.

The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered as the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before

Jainendra Kumar, Phaneshwar Nath Renu and Ajenya (Satchidananda Hiranand Vatsyayan) are the other popular figures of this time. Jainendra Kumar explored the human psyche in novels like Sunita and Tyagapatra. Renu's Maila Aanchal is one of the major works of this period. Ajneya brought experimentalism (prayogvaad) into theHindi literature. His most famous novel is Shekhar Ek Jivani (1941).

Chhayavaadi Movement

In 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as Chhayavaad and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chhayavaadi. Jaishankar Prasad, Sumitranandan Pant, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' and Mahadevi Varma are the major Chhayavaadi poets.

Hindi literature today

The elite in India today are often well versed in English. English-medium convent schools have promoted English at the expense of Indian languages. However the rise of the vast Indian middle class has made Hindi publications, specially newspapers very popular. In recent decades, several Indian authors writing in English have received significant attention worldwide, creating an impression that they represent Indian literature today. English has replaced Indian languages as the choice of some Indian writers with an elite background, their writings represent a movement parallel to the literature in Hindi and other Indian languages.

The accuracy of this section of the article is suspect. See relevant discussion on the talk page.

Prominent Figures of Hindi literature

See also: List of Hindi and Urdu authors

• Sarahapa or Saraha (769-), author of Doha-Kosha

• Devasena, author of Devasena Shravakachara (933)

• Shalibhadra, author of Bharateshwar Bahubali Ras (1184)

• Jagnika, author of Parmal Raso (Chandella period)

• Chand Bardai (1148-1191), author of Prathviraj Raso

• Shalibhadra Suri, author of Bhareshshvar-Bahubali Ras in 1184.

• Amir Khusro (1253-1325 AD), author of pahelis and mukris in "Hindavi".

• Asahat author of Hamsavali (1370)

• Kabir (1398-1518) is known for his Granthavali which contains verses with love as the dominant motif. He was a major figure of the bhakti (devotional) movement.

• Raidas (1398-1448)

• Nanak (1469-1538) author of a section of Adi Granth

• Surdas (1467-1583) author of Surasagar etc.

• Shekh Farid (1472-1552)

• Malik Muhammad Jayasi author of Padmavat (1540) etc.

• Mirabai (1504-1560) author of Mira Padavali etc.

• Goswami Tulasidas (1532–1623) is the greatest Hindi poet of the medieval period. His Ramcharitamanas which is a retelling of the Ramayana continues to be popular in India and the Caribbean.

• Banarasidas (1586–1643) author of Ardhakathanaka, the first biography in Hindi

• Keshavdas (1555-1617)) author of Rasikpriya etc.

• Raskhan (1533- 1618)author of Premvatika etc.

• Bihari (1595–1664) became famous by writing Satasai (Seven Hundred Verses).

• Rahim () author of Nayikabheda etc.

• Jatmal (1626) author of Gora Badal ki Katha.

• Bhushan author of Shivarajbhushan (1673) etc.

• Guru Gobind Singh (1669-1708) author of Bachitra Natak etc.

• Padmakar author of Padmabharan (1810) etc.

• Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850-1885) works compiled in Bharatendu Granthavali

• Shardha Ram Phillauri author of novel Bhagyavai (1877) and the famous prayer Jai Jagdish Hare etc.

• Devaki Nandan Khatri (1861-1913) author of Chandrakanta etc.

• Munshi Premchand (1880–1936) was a great novelist. Of his novels, Godan (The Gift of a Cow, 1936) is considered the best. In this book he sketches rural life in an unparalleled manner. Doctors, Lawyers, Land-owners, farmers, and every part of the pre-independence India find voice in his writings.

• Maithili Sharan Gupt (1886–1964) was a pioneer of Khadiboli poetry and the author of the epic Saket in modern Hindi literature.

• Jaishankar Prasad (1889–1937) was a leader of the literary movement called Chhayavaad.

• Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' (1899–1961) wrote twelve collections of poetry, six novels, many short stories, essays and criticism, and also translated from Sanskrit and Bengali.

• Sumitranandan Pant authored twenty eight published works including poetry, verse plays and essays.

• Yashpal (1903–1976) is renowned for Jhutha Sach (The False Truth, 1958–1960), which is regarded as one of the best Hindi novels ever written.

• Hazariprasad Dwivedi (1907–1979), novelist, literary historian, essayist, critic and scholar, penned numerous novels, collections of essays and a historical outline of Hindi literature.

• Mahadevi Varma was one of the four pillars of the great Romantic movement in modern Hindi poetry, Chhayavada, the remaining three being Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Jaishankar Prasad and Sumitranandan Pant. Her mysticism led to the birth of a movement called Rahasyavada. She has been compared with Mira Bai, the great 16th century devotional poetess, in her lyrical mysticism.

• Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar' (1908–1974) emerged as a rebellious poet with his nationalist poetry in pre-Independence days.

• Nagarjun (1911-2002), is a major Hindi poet who has also penned a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies and travelogues. The most popular practising Hindi poet in the last decades of the twentieth century, Nagarjun is considered as the only poet, after Tulasidas, to have an audience ranging from the rural sections of society to the elite. His poems are usually centred around regional topics.

• Pt. Shriram Sharma Acharya (1911–1990), He wrote nearly 3500 books on varied subjects viz. Spirituality, Philosophy of Gayatri and Yagna, Family Welfare, Social Resuscitation and Moral Education.

• S. H. Vatsyayan (1911–1987), (Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayana), was popularly known by his pen-name Ajneya or Agyeya, was a pioneer of modern trends not only in the realm of poetry, but also fiction, criticism and journalism. He was one of the most prominent exponents of the 'Nayi kavita' (New Poetry) in Hindi, and edited the 'Tar Saptaks'. Amongst the most well-known of his poetry anthologies are 'Aangan ke paar dvaar', 'Chakranta-Shila', 'Kitni naavon mein kitni baar', 'Hari ghaas par kshan-bhar', 'Indradhanu raunde hue ye' etc. 'His major prose works include 'Shekhar: Ek Jeevani'. Agyeya was an extensive traveller, and in course of his travels held visiting positions at various institutions around the world, e.g. UC Berkeley. He received numerous honours such as the Sahitya Akademi Award, Jnanpith Award, Bharatbharati Award and the international Golden Wreath Award for poetry.

• Vishnu Prabhakar (b. 1912), with several short stories, novels, plays and travelogues to his credit, won the Sahitya Akademi Award for his novel, Ardhanarishvara (The Androgynous God or Shiva).

• Phanishwar Nath 'Renu' (1921–1977) is one of the great Hindi novelists of the post-Premchand era. His masterpiece is Maila Anchal (The Soiled Border, 1954), a social novel that depicts the life of a region and its people, the backward and the deprived. His short story 'Maare Gaye Gulfam'has been made into a film. Another of his short story 'Panchlight'(Petromax)is beautiful in its depiction of human behaviour. One can find many parallels between his and Premchand's writings only that if Premchand is a sea than he is a pond, talking in context of depth and expanse.

• Shrilal Shukla (b. 1925) became renowned for his objective and purposive satire, especially for his work 'Raag Darbari'.

• Mohan Rakesh (1925–1972) was one of the pioneers of the Nai Kahani movement of the 1950s. He made significant contribution to novel, short story, travelogue, criticism, memoirs and drama.

• Dharmavir Bharati (1926–1997) was a renowned Hindi writer and known to many as the editor of the magazine Saaptahik Hindustan. Amongst his famous works are 'Suraj ka saatva ghoda' (The Seventh Steed of the Sun), and the lyrical play 'Andha-Yug'. The former is a short novella with seven relatively independent plots, but each woven together in an integrated whole. It has at places scathing wit, and may be read as meta-fiction or as an allegory. The latter is a moral allegory that draws its rubric from the Mahabharata but conveys a timeless message about degeneration of values in human society. He also wrote some very insightful essays, and some prominent essay anthologies are Thele par Himalaya and Pashyanti.

• Raghuvir Sahay (1929–1990) was a versatile Hindi poet, translator, short-story writer and journalist.

• Nirmal Verma (1929–2005) together with Mohan Rakesh, Bhisham Sahni, Kamleshwar, Amarkant and others, is the founder of the Nai Kahani (new short story) in Hindi literature. He is best known for his short stories.

• Narendra Kohli (b. 1940) known for his plays, satires, short stories and novels, he is best known for his works on Ram katha (Abhyudaya), Mahabharat (Mahasamar) and Vivekanad (Toro Kara Toro). More details at .

• Harishankar Parsai: Known for his works of satire that attacked the hypocrisy and corruption rampant in various walks of life.

• Jainendra: An extremely influential figure in 20th century Hindi literature. His works are known for powerful depiction of female characters. Major works include 'Sunita', 'Dashartha' etc. Also wrote numerous short stories.
• Sachidanand Sinha: (b. 1937) An important Hindi poet of the contemporary period, author of poetry collections 'Aaathwan Din' and 'Dasham Rasa', Sinha has been credited with reintroducing serious poetry in Hindi literature at the turn of the 21st Century. Though Sinha, aged 68, is a senior poet writing since late 1950s, his first poetry collection 'Aathwan Din' got published in 1995, which was hailed as the new experiments that Hindi poetry is capable of achieving both in terms of theme and technique. His poetry has also been seen as meditations on the concept of Time. Time for Sinha is spatial, though the linearity of time as perceived by the common men and women is also important for him. His unpublished long poem in English titled 'Darkness Lit by Night' on the dehumanising riots of Gujarat in 2002 has been acknowledged by some prominent critics as the achievement of a greater poetic mind. Sinha is now busy with bringing out his third poetry collection in Hindi.

• Manglesh Dabral: A significant contemporary poet, won Sahitya Akademi Award for his collection 'Hum Jo Dekhte Hain'.

• Arun Kamal: An important and respected poet, winner of Sahitya akademi. Lives in Patna.

• Uday Prakash: A very influential contemporary writer, quite popular for his controversial and much debated novel 'Peeli Chhatri Waali Ladki' (The Girl With A Yellow Umbrella).

• 'Shailendra Chauhan': Very very simple, sensible and vocal contemporary hindi writer, known for his analytic and sharp criticism of contemporary literature.To his credit following are a few publications ; -

Poetry Collections :

one short story collection ; "Nahin yah koee kahani nahin"

See also

• Hindi Language
• Indian literature
• History of Hindi: a detailed chronology
• Apabhramsha

हिंदी साहित्य Literatura hindi